Differentiate Between Stress And Strain Engineering Essay

strike out Between Stress And Strain Engineering EssayWhen stretching a worldly, the distance mixtures and the strain become despotic. More strain means that more(prenominal) accent mark to the disapprove once compress. When the material is compressed, the length changes and strain becomes negative. This obeys to the righteousness of the stresses where go together with these strains, tensile stresses being positive and compressive stresses negative.http//studentweb.usq.edu.au/home/w0036795/etassgn_4/images_unit02/unit2_image36.gif prefigure above shows the relationship betwixt stress and stain as the stress is directly proportional to strain. There is a relationship where the nip return and the object changing in physical shape. It has revealed that the elastic behavior place be defined thru some relations with the form that the physical recite changes is sm all in all in related to the original. This relationship back end defined as Hookes Law ( F = -kx) oral sex 2Py rometer is apply for measuring temperature. contend in details four principal techniques for the criterion of temperature. State the typic applications of different types of pyrometersA pyrometer use to respects wake up from an object which has visible in bright or radiant. Pyrometers consider as thermometers where scientists use it to define the heat and heat type given out from an object. The critical variation betwixt a pyrometer and another(prenominal) types of thermometers is the radiant levels on or after the heated objects argon typically far in addition hot for interaction. That is why pyrometers induce visual s dejectionners that measure the heat.Four principal techniques for measurement of temperature.IR Pyrometers for prove TemperaturesThe spectrum lies at wavelengths longer than light however shorter than microwaves or measuring system. IR pyrometers usually operate with wavelengths from two to twenty microns, reckoning on the material being calculated. Plan cks law states that the emissive power of a black body contains a spectral distribution reliant on the body temperature. This can be a well-known matter, thus there atomic number 18 numerous strategies to avert this matter with variable target emissivity.IR Gas Temperature PyrometersIR pyrometer structural at a wavelength consistent to the combustion emitted products, such as carbonic acid muff accelerator pedal ray of light (at 4.26 or 4.5 microns) can measure fair gas temperature. This method demand gas to be combusted, meanwhile air non having a sturdy IR emission peaks. All fossil fuels bring forth CO2 after when it burnt, so this method is appropriate to oil and propane laid-off furnaces, but not for galvanicly heated furnaces. The temperature of the gas stately is the radiation temperature of the CO2 gases in the field of view of the crystalline lens, so choice of lens and placement is significant. 2 IR pyrometers must be located on opposite sides of the furnace t o portion this temperature inhomogeneity. Whatever that blocks the assessment of the lens (as soot or dust), air penetration (less CO2 to measure temperatures) or huge differences in gas temperature with time can create the number temperature show too strident to use straight in a control system. acoustic PYROMETERSAcoustic pyrometers is a method where employ to measure the temperature of gases created on the temperature trustingness of the speed of sound. The speed of sound diverges by means of the squ be root of the enumerate gas temperature. This method stretches an average temperature completed an identified path length if the gas com mail service is identified and continuous. Guileless acoustical pyrometry uses the time of escape cock statistics for the leading wave front to reach the receiver. This is suitable on behalf of an average gas temperature for one path. The wavelengths may exist to be enormous, for instance, presumptuous a sound velocity of 880 m/s at a absol ute frequence of 500 Hz stretches a wavelength of 1.8 m. Ruptures of air can remain the butt of sound, giving an informal to connect, low-maintenance instrument. Numerous paths can be selected, which can be examined to provide 2D isothermal maps of furnace temperature problematic to crop by other resources for gas temperatures of 1650C. Advantages of acoustical pyrometry embrace modest and rough equipment for industrial environments, numerous paths subsequently a single transmitter for a least gist of holes in the furnace walls for 2D temperature mapping, low operating costs and proven technology.sucking pyrometersSuction pyrometers be a method where suction is used to bring up the hot combustion gases past a thermocouple at a great velocity to decrease the fault in gas temperature measurements. shaft of light shields reduce the thermal effects of radiation. Suction pyrometers atomic number 18 still the scoop out industrial apparatuses for measuring combustion gas temperatur es, for instance, they be used for temporary gas temperature measurements at a specific position or for normalization of other temperature measurement apparatus. The micro suction pyrometer has been established to evade incalculable of the disadvantages of the suction pyrometer. Main disadvantages with micro suction pyrometers comprise their lesser gamy-fidelityness and additional brittle construction comparative to conservative suction pyrometers.Types of pyrometersBroadband PyrometerThe wideband pyrometer is used to record the broadband wavelengths of radiation, typically more or less 0.3 microns. However far repeatedly used, they can have big mistakes in readings. Subsequently they are merely registering a minor quantity of an object heat. Everything from water vapour to dust can produce a reading error. optic PyrometersAn ocular pyrometer let a scientist to observe heat though all pyrometers are opthalmic in the sense they can recite an objects heat from a distance. An optical pyrometer is used to measures the heat infrared wavelengths and straight displays the manipulator the object heat distribution. Additional pyrometers typically have a screen to shows the results of an optical scan. An optical pyrometer can act lie a telescope where the scientists can look all over a lens and see the infrared wavelengths of an object. Optical pyrometers are one of the oldest pyrometer types and are able to see the wavelength levels up to 0.65 microns. shaft of light PyrometerA radiation pyrometer is used to determine pure radiation wavelengths. The maneuver contains an optical scanner that can perceive 0.7 to 20 microns on the affirm of wavelength, the overall range for radioactive heat. The optical scanner lightens the burden of scientists in measuring the radiation levels without putting the pyrometer up to the object, where it can endanger the soulfulness in charge to expose to radiation.Question 3Draw the operable block diagram of Electrocardiograph y ( electrocardiogram) machines and explain each in details. From the running(a) block diagram, answer the following1. What (electricly) is being measured?2. How is the electrical signal capture? What is the sensing fragment? How does it work?Draw a complete lap covering to represent the functional block diagramWhat is ECG?An electrocardiogram or ECG is used to measure and analyzed electrical arrangement of the punk and even off used to investigate heart disease. British physiologist Augustus D. Waller is the creator of electrocardiography and published the first human electrocardiogram in the year 1887. Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven, who transformed this inquisitive physiologic phenomenon into a crucial clinical recording device, was awarded a Nobel prize in medicine.Block diagram of ECGhttp//edge.rit.edu/ discipline/OldEDGE/public/Archives/P05903/WebsitePics/ECGsetup.JPGWhen the heart depolarizes, its suitable (and quite precise) to denote the electrical activity as a dipole which a transmitter amid two point charges. A vector has both a size (magnitude), and a direction. The authorisation diverges around the volume conductor. This applies to all intra-cardiac events, so the vector (or axis) for P waves, the QRS complex, T waves, and so on.httphttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGJwBWkSdfdz_iBdTqrFVdvmvWn18f7W6mnCpuqUgSs2Rgb8MJytJ3Js3F8qZL44mm-DcBTonS_4ZH7z0R7Iwrw0uR9nQR_glYDqck5VYr5EEgJ3qFUHAyBVek9thNkqkUVSxt3FGQEWo/s1600/3-lead_ecg-signal+measurement.jpgThe electrocardiogram, or ECG is a out measurement of the electrical potential produced by electrical action in cardiac tissue. Current come down in ion form and signals shrinkage of cardiac muscle fibers foremost to the hearts pumping activity. The human heart can too be considered as a large muscle where the beating is vindicatory contraction of muscles. Consequently contractions of the heart create a potential. The measurement of the potential created by cardiac muscle is called as electrocardiology.Types of electric is being measureda) Bipolar leads The position point located on one limb , the feel electrode can be on another limb. The leads are mark as I, II, and III.b) Unipolar leads The position point located in some leads that coupled together, and the sensing lead is located on one limb. These leads are predictably increased, in that the position lead on the limb sensed is disconnect from the other two.c) The V leads The position where lengthen across the precordium, V1 in the twenty-five percent right interspace, V2 4th left, V4 at the apex (5th interspace, midclavicular line), V3 halfway in between V2 and V4, and V5 V6 in the 5th interspace at the anterior and mid axillary lines correspondingly.These electrode leads are usually connected to potential differences devices between selected electrodes to create the specific ECG tracings. Majority of the ECG leads are bipolar leads (e.g., standard limb leads) that apply a single positive and a single negative electrode amongst which electrical potentials are measured. Unipolar leads (augmented leads and chest leads) consist os single positive recording electrode and apply a blend of the other electrodes to assist as a merged negative electrode. Typically, once an ECG is recorded, all leads are recorded instantaneously, normally called as 12-lead ECG.How is the electrical signal capture? What is the sensing element? How does it work?Cardiac electrical potential wave forms ( electromotive forces created through the heart as its chambers contract) are measured by the PASCO CI-6539A EKG (Electrocardiogram) Sensor. The detector contains of the electronics box by a cable for connecting to the PASCO computer interface through a five pin DIN analog connector. 3 electrode leads fret in the electronics box on the side opposite the cable that assigns to the interface. The sensor signal is conveyed from side to side an opto-isloation circuit. An isolation transformer is used to transfer the sensors power.Question 5Explain in detail idea of industrial voltage to frequency converters and frequency to voltage converters using an operational amplifier.Voltage to frequency converterThe voltage-to-frequency converter is a converter which delivers an output frequency just now relative to its gossip voltage. The digital open-collector frequency output is well-matched through all mutual logic families. Its adding stimulus features give the VFC32 outstanding noise subway and small nonlinearity. Complete output frequency is determined by an out(prenominal) capacitor and resistor.Open-collector logic output is gain from the frequency output final stage. A pull-up resistor is typically connected to a 5V logic ply to generate normal logic-level pulses. Though, it connected to some power supply (+VCC). take pulses obligate a continuous period and positive-going throughout the oneshot period. Current sleek in the open-collector output transistor proceeds by the common terminal. The terminal must be linked to logic ground.Frequency to voltage innovationThe capacitive-coupled chem ical reaction network C3, R6 and R7 let typical 5V logic levels to activate the comparator input. The comparator causes the one-shot on the dropping control of the frequency input pulses. Beginning voltage of the comparator is about -0.7V. 5V logic levels having less waveform for frequency input, the comparator is activated by regulation the voltage divider of R6/R7 to a lower voltage. C2 smoothens the output voltage waveform. greater value of C2 decrease the wrinkle in the output voltage. Lesser values of C2 let the output voltage to resolve quicker in response to a modification in input frequency. Resistor R1 can be pared to attain the preferred output voltage at the complete input frequency. The signal response current is equivalent to VIN/R1. This current is combined by response op amp and C2, creating a descending ramping integrator output voltage. once the integrator output slopes to the verge of the comparator, the one-shot is activated. The 1mA reference current is swapped to the integrator input throughout the one-shot length, producing the integrator production ramp rising. Subsequently the one-shot period, the integrator once more ramps descending. The fluctuation procedure forces a long-term stability of charge (or average current) between the input signal current and the reference current.Question 6Describe the purpose and basic operation principle of differential hug come down meters. Differentiate between gap plate, venturi, car horn and pitot tube.Differential instancy guide metersIt is the control of fluid period of time rate by recital the push loss thru a shout out restriction is possibly the sterling(prenominal) where usually used extend measurement method in industrialise uses (Figure 2-1). The descent of pressure created by a extensive variability of geometric restrictions have been well considered over the years. These primary or head flow elements originate in a extensive diversity of configurations, all with call for a pplication assets and flaws. Differences on the refrain of differential pressure (d/p) flow measurementhttp//www.omega.com/ belles-lettres/ minutes/volume4/images/07_Fig_01_l.GIFOrifice plateshttp//www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/images/07_Fig_04_l.GIFIn rifle liquid, gas, and steam service, hatchway plates are generally used. It is obtainable for entirely pipe sizes, very economical for gauging flows in bigger pipes (over 6 diameter). Numerous standards organizations permitted the orifice plates as is used for the supervision the transfer of liquids and gases. The orifice flow calculations used today still fluctuate from each other, though the numerous standards organizations are operational to accept a solitary, generally accepted orifice flow calculation. User can select the flow equation thru orifice size of it program. Even though it is a modest device, the orifice plate can be considered as a precision instrument. Orifice plates are sensibly sensitive to a ch ange of error-inducing situations. Precision in the drag controls, the morality of the connection, and the state of the plate itself regulate the routine. Installation influences embrace tap position and state, form of the process pipe, capability of straight pipe innings, gasket intrusion, misalignment of pipe and orifice drags, and lead line design. Other adverse conditions comprise the corrosion or erosion of the pipes, dirt, and grease or secondary phase deposits on either orifice surface.http//www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/images/07_Fig_06_l.GIFVenture tubehttp//www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/images/07_Fig_07_l.GIFThe venturi tubes is quite expensive, so they are mainly used for greater flows or on further tough or difficult flow applications. Venturis are not sensitive to velocity outline properties and consequently need less straight pipe run than an orifice. The character of scrubbing act of the flow through the tube creates the device resis tant to corrosion, erosion, and interior scale spend a penny up. Due to high initial cost, the owner still is promising as the savings in fitting and functioning and maintenance costs. Flow element is long which considered by a narrowing inlet and a deviating outlet. The pick up is used to determine the inlet pressure, while the throat section is to measure the static pressure. The pressure taps nourish into a joint annular chamber, as long as an average pressure analysis over the whole perimeter of the element. The venturi is per centumial in its use to clean, non-corrosive liquids and gases. The great derangement and the absence of holes in which material can gather create flow tubes well suitable for slurry and mud services. But, maintenance costs can be high if air removal cant stop persisting of the pressure taps and lead lines. Plunger-like devices (vent cleaners) can be connected to occasionally bring off accumulation from interior openings, even though the meter is onl ine.Flow nozzlehttp//www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/images/07_Fig_09_l.GIFThe flow nozzle can be express it is more stable than the orifice plate, mainly in greater or higher temperature and higher velocity services as compared to orifice plates. It used to determine high flow rates of superheated vapor. The flow nozzle as well having a better flow capacity than the orifice plate and needs a lesser first investment than a venturi tube, but in like manner delivers lesser pressure recovery. A main disadvantage of the nozzle is that it is harder to change than the orifice except it can be detached as part of a spool unit. Flow nozzles preserve their accuracy for long periods, even in tough service. Flow nozzles can be very accurate way to determine gas flows. As soon as the gas velocity influences the speed of sound in the throat, the velocity cant pile any more and a overcome flow condition is extended.Pitot Tubeshttp//www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/i mages/07_Fig.12_l.GIFPitot tube is one of the simple in design flow sensors where it is used to measure varied range of flow measurement applications. Normally, it is used in air speed in racing cars and air force fighter jets. Pitot tubes also used to analyze air flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks, and liquid flow in pipes, weirs, and open channels in industrial applications. The accuracy and range capability are moderately low, while pitot tubes are modest, dependable, low-cost, and suitable for a diversity of environmental situations, plus tremendously high temperatures and a wide range of pressures.