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Phobias and Addictions Essay - 275 Words

Phobias and Addictions (Essay Sample) Content: Running head: PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSPhobias and Addictions as related to Classical and Operant ConditioningCleon SmithWriters Online UniversityPHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSAbstractBoth phobias and addictions represent two emotional challenges which associative learning theorists can explain through classical and operant conditioning. Classical and operant conditioning are among the various methods people learn, either as a learned response to paired stimulus or as modelled behaviors attached to behaviors and consequences that can develop into phobias and addictions. Classical conditioning has been linked to the development as well as treatment of phobias. Classical conditioning has been found effective in treating phobias and has not been found effective in treating addictions. Operant conditioning involves the neurotransmitters in the pain and pleasure region of the brain. Phobias resulting from classical conditioning as well as addictions developed through operant conditio ning can be removed through extinction.PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSClassical conditioning is one of the major theories of human behavior. It involves a natural stimulus in relation to the response; thus a previously neutral response creates the response even without the presence of the natural stimulus. On the other hand operant conditioning involves a relationship between a behavior and its consequence. In classical conditioning a neutral signal is placed before a reflex while in contrary to operant conditioning the reinforcement is after the behavior. Classical conditioning on the other hand focuses on the forced behaviors whereas operant conditioning dwells on the voluntary behaviors. Thus we find out that classical conditioning can cause a phobia; and according to American Psychiatric Association, a phobia is an irrational and excessive fear of an object or situation. In most cases, the phobia involves a sense of being endangered or a fear of harm. Yates (2012), ``specific phobia is c haracterized by extreme and persistent fear of specific objects or situations that present little or no real threat`` (p.1). On the other hand operant conditioning being another type of associative learning is associated with addiction: and addiction always results when one associates a response, like a positive emotional response that occurs at the same time as a particular effect, such as engaging in the use of a particular substance or engaging in a particular activity .While the two have verse differences they posses some similarities as both being methods to modify behavior and the use of extinction.A phobia is a common anxiety disorder in psychology discipline thus phobias are traditionally irrational fears of an object, situation or activity, where the sufferer takes measures of avoidance, not to face one`s fear. ``Higher-order conditioning allows our learning to be remarkably flexible. We can develop fears of many stimuli, although certain phobias, such as those of snakes, s piders, heights, water and blood are considerably morePHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSwidespread than others(American Psychological Association,2000)All types of phobias may interfere with normal daily functioning, and overwhelming anxiety may develop thus they can develop through classical conditioning as underlined in the following; ``phobias develop through classical conditioning when one stimulus is paired with another resulting in a different response`` Dingfelder(2005),therefore when one has irrational fear of cancer,carcinophobia,this can lead one to associate cancer with fear and anxiety; the news of someone suffering from cancer or even reading articles about cancers sends chills down the spine of the person which can lead to fear and anxiety. Thus to sum it up all phobias and fetishes are products of classical conditioning.Addictions are dependencies on substances or activities, which results when one lacks the ability to limit or stop a certain activity. They occur when one becomes dependent on a particular substance like narcotics or a particular activity like sex.Substance use and engaging in activities can be pleasurable in most cases though a routine usage or continued activity can become compulsive therefore hindering daily functioning,health,mental processing thus addictions are illnesses that in most cases require treatment. ``Operant conditioning is learning that occurs when an organism associates a response that occurs spontaneously with a particular environmental effect`` (KowalskiWesten, 2011).Addictions are developed through operant conditioning as illustrated; addictions in most cases result when one associates a response, like a pleasurable emotional response which happens simultaneously with a particular activity. Therefore operant conditioning necessitates addictions because of the repeated response that causes a particular effect, which is constantly required. The continual desire causes one to further the use of a particular substance or act ivity, hence addictions develop. Like the case of alcohol consumption if taken constantly and regularly drives one to be alcoholic.PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSThe American HeritageÂdictionary (2000) states that extinction is a reduction or a loss in the strength or rate of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement is withheld. Kowalski and Westen (2011) outlines that in classical conditioning, extinction refers to the process by which a conditioned response is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Like in the case of a dog and a bell, if a dog hears a bell every time it is presented food it will start to salivate just at the sound of the bell, however if food is not presented with the bell for several incidences, the dog`s salivation will decrease and eventually stop when the bell rings; thus the ceasing of the dog to salivate because the food is no longer presented with the bell is extinction. Addict ions developed through operant conditioning can also be eliminated by extinction(KowalskiWesten,2011).Therefore extinction occurs when the earlier pleasure is no longer satisfying like in the case of using the hard drugs like cocaine when it no longer provides the previous ecstasy desired, the person will no longer use the drug and the behavior will be extinguished.Human beings may experience several emotional difficulties. Phobias and addictions may affect a person`s life negatively. Classical and operant conditioning are two ways in which learning may occur; thus some scholars believe that phobias can be developed through classical conditioning and addictions can be developed by operant conditioning. Just as addictions and phobias are caused by these, extinction can help reverse them.PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONSReferencesCoelho, C., Purkis, H. (2009). The origins of specific phobias: Influential theories and current perspectives. Review of General Psychology, 13(4), 335-348.Dingfelder, S. (2005).Distinguishing between phobias. Monitor on Psychology, 36(7),, 98.Kowalski, R., Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). John Wiley Sons, Inc.Kowalski, R., Westen, D. (2011).Psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.The American Heritage Science Dictionary Copyright  2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.West, R. (2006). Theory of Addiction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, Inc.CURRICULUM VITAECleon Orina OtienoP.o. Box 7047 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ 00300, Nairobi.Citizenship: Kenyan Gender: MaleMarital status: Single Age: 25 yearsReligion; Christian Languages; English and KiswahiliMobile no.:+254 722 996 140 Email: xeriano@yahoo.comStrength and attributes;I am a self-motivated individual with desire to learn new challenges. I have leadership skills and believe in teamwork as a sure way of goal delivery.WORK EXPERIENCEMarch 2011 Up to Present; (TNS-RMS R...

How to Prepare For the Last Lecture Essay Topics

How to Prepare For the Last Lecture Essay TopicsThe last lecture is the last time you will take on the final exam before graduating college. Many students do not know that the most difficult part of the exams is when you try to complete the last one. Therefore, you should always be ready to face all the challenges when you go to finish your exams. Here are some tips that can help you take on the final test.Before you even start thinking about anything else, take a look at your previous assignments. Do you know what you did wrong when it comes to this subject? Remember the topic that you tackled for the last essay and use it as your guide when you go to write the paper.First of all, you should always think about the format of the paper and the writing style. It is important that you keep in mind the basics, so that you can put them in to practice. After you think of the topics and the topic areas, you should then concentrate on the structure of the paper.Make sure that you have learne d about the basic grammar rules when it comes to writing your papers. When you study for the exams, you should always remember that this is not about being clever. In fact, if you study well and take your time, it is possible that you will come up with some really neat ideas.You should also think about the characters. This will give you an idea how you should develop the plot. Of course, you can ask your professor for help when it comes to this part.Take the exam only when you are prepared. You should think about the topic and the main points that you want to emphasize. You should also choose the parts of the paper that you are going to cover.Another tip for the last lecture is that you should think about the conclusion of the paper. If you do not understand what the professor has written, you should make sure that you know what you wrote on the previous lines. You should also know that the main point of the essay is not the whole subject of the paper, but the part that will serve a s a proof of the material that you wrote in the last part.Taking an exam is a good idea, but you should also make sure that you are on the right track when it comes to the other aspects of the test. Just like a baby who cannot talk yet, a student can never be totally sure of their grades. It is up to you to get into the right track so that you will achieve the best grades possible.